Henrys association with the excommunicated advisers and his continued intervention increased tensions with Rome. After royal claims gradually transformed election into royal appointment, admission to office was effected by the bestowal, or investiture, by the lord of ring and staff (symbols of the episcopal office), preceded by an act of homage. Europe / Germany, Christian Church / History, WORLD / European. 1. The temporal cycle could also be expanded. The full impact of medieval liturgy as it was experienced in the Western Europe, however, extended far beyond the bare bones contained in these books, intertwined as it was with the development of art and architecture, law and commerce, and the political/socio-economic developments that would take Christian society and religion from the twilight of late antiquity to the dawn of early modernity. 
Leos program was continued by his successors, one of whom, Nicholas II (reigned 105961), reformed the process by which the pope was chosen. While these kingdoms are relatively small and often in conflict with each 
Yet he continued to oppose Gregory, who excommunicated the king again in 1080 to little avail. Gregory had no choice but to lift the ban of excommunication and restore his rival to the church. Increasing focus on the New Testament in modeling Christian life (prompted by Crusades to the Holy Land and increasing criticism of the worldliness of the clergy) led to the rise of new religious groups, engaged in non-monastic forms of ministry and prayer. These Masses could be offered for any one of a number of special intentions or reasons, but came to be most frequently offered on behalf of a deceased person, for which the priest would be offered a stipend (normally a small sum of money). 
In Icelandic, this event is known as the kristnitaka (literally, "the taking of Christianity"). The English Henry Bradshaw Society (HBS), formed in 1890 and exclusively dedicated to publishing editions of rare liturgical texts, offered its first volume in 1891 and continues its publication program today. Although it was part of a broader reformation of the church that originated in the 10th century, the papal reform, or Gregorian Reform, movement, which began with the appointment of Pope Leo IX in 1049, is arguably the most important event in the churchs history. Over time, mixed Roman-Gallican-Germanic sacramenties diffused back over the Alps to Rome itself. Dewey Decimal. In one of the most dramatic events of the Middle Ages, Henry journeyed to meet Gregory at Canossa in the winter of 1077 and, barefoot in the snow, sought forgiveness as a penitent sinner from the pope. One of the examples is the Dome of the Rock (late 7th century) in Jerusalem. Apparently defeated by Henry, Gregory died in exilebecause, as Gregory said, he loved justice and hated iniquitybut the ideals he espoused, as well as the controversy he engendered, continued into the next century. The involvement of Henry and his advisers in the affairs of the church of Milan brought papal condemnation and excommunication to the advisers. A liturgical book is generally understood to be one that is actually used during a liturgical celebration, as opposed to one intended for reference, utilized to prepare or plan ahead of time, or offering commentary on the liturgy. Some areas, like the medieval Mass and Office, have been the focus of intense study; others, like the rituals, much less so, partly because of the number and complexity of the widely variable manuscript texts. The priest, in rural districts usually a villein of the lord (subject to the lord but not to others), cultivated his acres of glebe (revenue lands of the parish church), celebrated mass on Sundays and feast days, recited some of the hours, and saw that his flock was baptized, anointed, and buried. This agreement ended a strife of 50 years, during which pamphleteers on both sides had revived every kind of claim to supremacy and God-given authority. Simply put, physical objects were understood to be composed of both substance (the inner reality) and accidents, various elements of physical appearance to the senses, which could vary without changing the inner essence of reality, the substance. These ritual moments, usually when there is a pause in the official prayers or actions, have come to be called liturgical soft spots. The hypothesis is that these empty moments tend to accrete additional private texts and gestures, intended mostly for the use of the presider. 
In Roman use, these prayers tended to be brief, succinct, and stylized in phrasing and construction. Henry accepted, but the bishops refused the terms; thereupon the king seized the pope, who agreed to lay investiture under duress. Other blessing prayers (benedictiones) could also be listed among these other ritual materials. The early Middle Ages was a time of growth and expansion for western Christianity, spreading through both the preaching of missionaries and the military strength of secular rulers. This curial/Regula (rule) Missal was revised further in the mid-13th century by the English Franciscan Haymo of Faversham, and could be was produced in smaller manuscript formats, to be more easily carried from place to place. In the mid-1040s three claimants to the throne of St. Peter held sway in central Italy. In the west, this was the structure popularized by Benedict of Nursia in his Rule (c. 540 ce): monastic celebration of the Office (also the opus Dei, or work of God) included additional shorter prayer services throughout the course of the day. By the 11th century the greater part of central Christendom had been divided into bishops dioceses and individual parishes. But in the northern and western regions the proliferation of small private churches had not yet been wholly absorbed, and the existence of proprietary and exempt enclaves continued until the Reformation and beyond. The matter was only resolved in 1417 with the election of Martin V, at the Council of Constance (14141418), and the papacy eventually achieved its most princely form. There were two cycles of liturgical time: the temporal cycle, including specific penitential or festal seasons as well as major feast days, usually connected with the commemoration of events in the life of Christ; and the sanctoral cycle, composed of the feasts and commemorations of universal and local saints. All of the western rites had their own lectionaries at this time; the eventual list that makes its way into the various forms of the later medieval full missal (Missale plenum) in the Roman rite is a Frankish-Roman hybrid. The link was not copied. The core of the Office was the recitation of the psalms in a particular sequence, so that ideally the entire 150-psalm psalter could be recited within a specific period of time. His war with the Normans was a disaster, and his appointment of Humbert of Silva Candida as ambassador to Constantinople led to the Schism of 1054. Important collections include Giovanni Bona, Rerum liturgicarum libri duo (16711672; edited by Roberto Sala, 17471753); Jean Mabillon, Museum Italicum (1687); Edmond Martne, De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus (four volumes, editions from 1702 to 1788); Jacques-Paul Migne, Patrologica Latina (multiple volumes published during the 19th century); and the on-going Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH; from 1826). However, the prayers of the living on their behalf could shorten (remit) this period of purifying penitential suffering, so the powerful spiritual benefits of the Mass could be applied to the deceased on whose behalf it was offered. Political influence accelerated its rapid spread north of the Alps and its acceptance in Rome. Lccn. This marked the The developments in the church around the year 1000 foreshadowed the dramatic events of the later 11th century, which in turn stimulated the profound growth of the church in the High Middle Ages. Too Good to Rot? His disobedience as much as his insistence on the right of lay investiture, which was not formally condemned until 1078, brought about a break with Gregory by the end of 1075. The practice of offering private Masses (celebrations when, at minimum, only a priest and acolyte might be present), developed from the earlier custom of offering a more simple version of the Eucharist (the Missa privata, that is, non-public and deprived of its full ceremonial) with small groups on certain occasions or for certain intentions or reason. Two involved periods of preparation in advance of the two most important feast days of the western church: Advent, which preceded Christmas; and Lent, which came to an end with the celebration of the Triduum (from the evening of Holy Thursday, through Good Friday, and Holy Saturday, and ending the evening of Easter Sunday). This ceremony was highly evocative of simony, both because a layman bestowed a spiritual benefice and because money was often offered or demanded. The scattered priests and distant bishops gradually became a distinct class, the clergy, with a law and a loyalty of their own. Part of the difficulty lies in the complexity of both the liturgical structures themselves and the written sources that provide an initial starting place. Intended to return the church to its original purity and to abolish simony and clerical marriage, the movement revolutionized the churchs organization, establishing the hierarchical structure headed by the pope that has come to characterize the institution. The monk Paschasius Radbertus held that the Body of Christ present in the Eucharist was that identical to the historical body of Christ, born of Mary and ascended into heaven; his confrere, the monk Ratramnus, instead supported the idea of a real, spiritual presence of Christ, based on the essentially Platonic idea that spiritual reality was a reality superior to that experienced in the material world through the senses. And since the alleluia before the Gospel was omitted on penitential days and seasons, it was replaced (beginning about the 9th century) by another new chanted text, called the tract. To the east, Hungarians and Poles begin to convert to Christianity, and Christianity reaches Iceland and Greenland to the west. The same is true for the Office. In later centuries, there was a pronounced tendency to compile individual volumes (or small sets of volumes) that were more comprehensive, containing in a single book, at least the minimum, if not most of the textual material required for that specific rite or by that specific presider. Scandinavia was largely Christianized by the early 12th century, and the threat of violent Viking raids waned. Leo established a papal presence north of the Alps in other church councils at which he promoted reform and denounced both simony and clerical marriage. While there were attempts to compile a standard book of Roman rituals in the 16th century, none were officially adopted. Gregorys reform activities have been overshadowed by his controversy with Henry IV over the investiture of the clergy. During the 11th century, lay investiture came under increasing criticism as an act of simony and a violation of the independence of the church. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Sundays during these seasons were numbered, for example, the first Sunday of Advent or the third Sunday of Lent. The struggle between the kings of England and France led to the long-term devastation of the Hundred Years War (13371453). Countless other men and women traveled to Jerusalem in the early 1030s, probably to witness the return of Christ. Therefore, the dates of other religious observations in the Lent and Easter seasons are also variable: for example, Ash Wednesday, Ascension Thursday, and Pentecost Sunday. Eleven years later Pope Calixtus II (reigned 111924) accepted the Concordat of Worms (1122), according to which free election by ecclesiastics was to be followed by investiture (without staff and ring, which were granted by the church) and homage to the king. Two popes were candidates of rival aristocratic families, and the third, though widely respected for his piety, allegedly committed simony to receive his office. Cyrille Vogels original volume, Introduction aux sources de lhistoire du culte chrtien aux moyen ge (Spoleto, Italy: Centro Italiano di Studi Sullalto Medioevo, 1966) was revised some twenty years later and translated into English by liturgical historians William Storey and Niels Rasmussen; that title is Medieval Liturgy: An Introduction to the Sources (Washington, DC: Pastoral Press, 1986). The new forms of religious life that emerged, both orthodox and heterodox, were foreshadowed by Gregory VIIs devotion to St. Peter or were inspired by Gregorian reform efforts. Scriptural readings for the hours could be found in a marked Bible, or using a capitulary; other readings (required for the nine readings, divided into groups of three and arranged in liturgical units called nocturns, that formed part of the office of Matins) might be taken from a martyrology or a Legenda (containing longer texts of the lives of the saints) or from a sermon by a saint, found collected in a volume called a homiliary. 2. During the first part of the 20th century, liturgical scholars interested in the medieval period concentrated on the preparation of critical editions of various key liturgical books, available only in manuscript form. In general, trade expanded, leading to the development of a merchant class operating on a renewed cash economy. The strengthening of these centralized monarchies influenced the papacy as wellfor most of the 14th century, popes and the papal court and offices (the curia) resided in Avignon, and under French influence, rather than in Rome. Supporters of the traditional role of the emperor in ecclesiastical elections defended lay investiture by appealing to immemorial practice, which had been accepted and even enjoined by the papacy. But it was not until the beginning of the 11th century that the faith spread among the nomadic peoples of this and other central Asian regions. Although Gregory died a lonely exile, his principles of reform found reception all over Europe, and the new generation of bishops was Gregorian in sympathy and obedient in practice to papal commands in a way unknown to their predecessors. Gregory also believed that the pope is sanctified by the merit of St. Peter and that Rome alone defines the true faith. 274.304. These earliest pontificals, all dated after 800 ce, would also contain other material that would be later transferred to the rituale, or manual of other rites for the use of a priest; pontifical rituals would eventually be excluded from this presbyteral volume. As was the case with the sacramentaries and the ordines, this original Roman chant was also influenced by Frankish practice and expanded by additional chant material in later centuries. These would eventually be bound together in a single volume; the earliest of these collections is the Verona manuscript, (Veronense from the library of Verona, in which it was discovered), also called the Leonine sacramentary because it had earlier been thought to date from the papacy of Leo I (d. 461 ce). Madrasa-Mausoleum of Sultan Al Nasir Muhammad in Cairo has a Gothic doorway from Acre, reused as a trophy. Eventually the texts in the supplement were integrated into the main text, and other material was added. Local farmers would have their fields blessed during the spring, on days of fasting and prayer known as the Rogation days. Political and social structures underwent a sometimes turbulent development during this time. Like the Missale Romanum (1570), it was to replace breviary traditions in use for less than two hundred years. Schools established at monasteries and cathedrals formed the basis for the foundation and growth of medieval universities. The first phase of the Gregorian Reform movement resulted from chaos in Rome. By the late 12th century, theologian Peter Lombard defined several of the Churchs liturgical rites as primary sacraments that are both signs and causes of grace: Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Penance, Marriage, Ordination, and Anointing of the Sick (Extreme Unction). By the 11th century the greater part of central Christendom had been divided into bishops dioceses and individual parishes. The date of Christmas was set as December 25 in the mid-4th century and was therefore celebrated on that fixed date no matter what the day of the week or the phase of the Moon, like the feast days of Mary and the saints. At the beginning, much of Europe north of the Alps was thinly settled; initially there were few hamlets and cities among the rural fields and wilderness. There were several points during the Mass that antiphonsphrases or lines usually taken from the psalms, sometimes followed by other psalm verseswould be sung in a particular style known as chant. These come at the beginning of Mass, before the reading of the Gospel, the Alleluia as the Gospel book is brought forward, at the offertory (as the bread and wine are brought to the altar), and during communion. Other chants were developed from the 9th to the 11th centuries: tropes, sung phrases or texts woven into the chanting of a main text, like an alleluia, were collected into a book called the Troper. This is especially true of the strong Gallican (and later, Germanic) influence on the shape and content of the Roman liturgy. Leos reign was not without setbacks, however. The most important of these was the Peace of God movement, a series of church councils clustered primarily in the years preceding the millennium of the birth of Jesus and the millennium of the Passion and later incorporated into the broader institutional fabric of medieval society. The architectural and geographical environment, the hierarchical and political influences, the considerations of class and gender, and the economic and social developments of each century must be understood and interwoven with theological, linguistic, and artistic interpretation. 1054 The East-West Even more directly influential was Gregorys centralization of the church. The turn of the 20th century saw a burst of European publication activity in the area of medieval liturgy. Benedict himself includes specific instructions in his Rule on differences in the summer and winter liturgical schedules. 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Leos program was continued by his successors, one of whom, Nicholas II (reigned 105961), reformed the process by which the pope was chosen. While these kingdoms are relatively small and often in conflict with each Yet he continued to oppose Gregory, who excommunicated the king again in 1080 to little avail. Gregory had no choice but to lift the ban of excommunication and restore his rival to the church. Increasing focus on the New Testament in modeling Christian life (prompted by Crusades to the Holy Land and increasing criticism of the worldliness of the clergy) led to the rise of new religious groups, engaged in non-monastic forms of ministry and prayer. These Masses could be offered for any one of a number of special intentions or reasons, but came to be most frequently offered on behalf of a deceased person, for which the priest would be offered a stipend (normally a small sum of money). In Icelandic, this event is known as the kristnitaka (literally, "the taking of Christianity"). The English Henry Bradshaw Society (HBS), formed in 1890 and exclusively dedicated to publishing editions of rare liturgical texts, offered its first volume in 1891 and continues its publication program today. Although it was part of a broader reformation of the church that originated in the 10th century, the papal reform, or Gregorian Reform, movement, which began with the appointment of Pope Leo IX in 1049, is arguably the most important event in the churchs history. Over time, mixed Roman-Gallican-Germanic sacramenties diffused back over the Alps to Rome itself. Dewey Decimal. In one of the most dramatic events of the Middle Ages, Henry journeyed to meet Gregory at Canossa in the winter of 1077 and, barefoot in the snow, sought forgiveness as a penitent sinner from the pope. One of the examples is the Dome of the Rock (late 7th century) in Jerusalem. Apparently defeated by Henry, Gregory died in exilebecause, as Gregory said, he loved justice and hated iniquitybut the ideals he espoused, as well as the controversy he engendered, continued into the next century. The involvement of Henry and his advisers in the affairs of the church of Milan brought papal condemnation and excommunication to the advisers. A liturgical book is generally understood to be one that is actually used during a liturgical celebration, as opposed to one intended for reference, utilized to prepare or plan ahead of time, or offering commentary on the liturgy. Some areas, like the medieval Mass and Office, have been the focus of intense study; others, like the rituals, much less so, partly because of the number and complexity of the widely variable manuscript texts. The priest, in rural districts usually a villein of the lord (subject to the lord but not to others), cultivated his acres of glebe (revenue lands of the parish church), celebrated mass on Sundays and feast days, recited some of the hours, and saw that his flock was baptized, anointed, and buried. This agreement ended a strife of 50 years, during which pamphleteers on both sides had revived every kind of claim to supremacy and God-given authority. Simply put, physical objects were understood to be composed of both substance (the inner reality) and accidents, various elements of physical appearance to the senses, which could vary without changing the inner essence of reality, the substance. These ritual moments, usually when there is a pause in the official prayers or actions, have come to be called liturgical soft spots. The hypothesis is that these empty moments tend to accrete additional private texts and gestures, intended mostly for the use of the presider. In Roman use, these prayers tended to be brief, succinct, and stylized in phrasing and construction. Henry accepted, but the bishops refused the terms; thereupon the king seized the pope, who agreed to lay investiture under duress. Other blessing prayers (benedictiones) could also be listed among these other ritual materials. The early Middle Ages was a time of growth and expansion for western Christianity, spreading through both the preaching of missionaries and the military strength of secular rulers. This curial/Regula (rule) Missal was revised further in the mid-13th century by the English Franciscan Haymo of Faversham, and could be was produced in smaller manuscript formats, to be more easily carried from place to place. In the mid-1040s three claimants to the throne of St. Peter held sway in central Italy. In the west, this was the structure popularized by Benedict of Nursia in his Rule (c. 540 ce): monastic celebration of the Office (also the opus Dei, or work of God) included additional shorter prayer services throughout the course of the day. By the 11th century the greater part of central Christendom had been divided into bishops dioceses and individual parishes. But in the northern and western regions the proliferation of small private churches had not yet been wholly absorbed, and the existence of proprietary and exempt enclaves continued until the Reformation and beyond. The matter was only resolved in 1417 with the election of Martin V, at the Council of Constance (14141418), and the papacy eventually achieved its most princely form. There were two cycles of liturgical time: the temporal cycle, including specific penitential or festal seasons as well as major feast days, usually connected with the commemoration of events in the life of Christ; and the sanctoral cycle, composed of the feasts and commemorations of universal and local saints. All of the western rites had their own lectionaries at this time; the eventual list that makes its way into the various forms of the later medieval full missal (Missale plenum) in the Roman rite is a Frankish-Roman hybrid. The link was not copied. The core of the Office was the recitation of the psalms in a particular sequence, so that ideally the entire 150-psalm psalter could be recited within a specific period of time. His war with the Normans was a disaster, and his appointment of Humbert of Silva Candida as ambassador to Constantinople led to the Schism of 1054. Important collections include Giovanni Bona, Rerum liturgicarum libri duo (16711672; edited by Roberto Sala, 17471753); Jean Mabillon, Museum Italicum (1687); Edmond Martne, De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus (four volumes, editions from 1702 to 1788); Jacques-Paul Migne, Patrologica Latina (multiple volumes published during the 19th century); and the on-going Monumenta Germaniae Historica (MGH; from 1826). However, the prayers of the living on their behalf could shorten (remit) this period of purifying penitential suffering, so the powerful spiritual benefits of the Mass could be applied to the deceased on whose behalf it was offered. Political influence accelerated its rapid spread north of the Alps and its acceptance in Rome. Lccn. This marked the The developments in the church around the year 1000 foreshadowed the dramatic events of the later 11th century, which in turn stimulated the profound growth of the church in the High Middle Ages. Too Good to Rot? His disobedience as much as his insistence on the right of lay investiture, which was not formally condemned until 1078, brought about a break with Gregory by the end of 1075. The practice of offering private Masses (celebrations when, at minimum, only a priest and acolyte might be present), developed from the earlier custom of offering a more simple version of the Eucharist (the Missa privata, that is, non-public and deprived of its full ceremonial) with small groups on certain occasions or for certain intentions or reason. Two involved periods of preparation in advance of the two most important feast days of the western church: Advent, which preceded Christmas; and Lent, which came to an end with the celebration of the Triduum (from the evening of Holy Thursday, through Good Friday, and Holy Saturday, and ending the evening of Easter Sunday). This ceremony was highly evocative of simony, both because a layman bestowed a spiritual benefice and because money was often offered or demanded. The scattered priests and distant bishops gradually became a distinct class, the clergy, with a law and a loyalty of their own. Part of the difficulty lies in the complexity of both the liturgical structures themselves and the written sources that provide an initial starting place. Intended to return the church to its original purity and to abolish simony and clerical marriage, the movement revolutionized the churchs organization, establishing the hierarchical structure headed by the pope that has come to characterize the institution. The monk Paschasius Radbertus held that the Body of Christ present in the Eucharist was that identical to the historical body of Christ, born of Mary and ascended into heaven; his confrere, the monk Ratramnus, instead supported the idea of a real, spiritual presence of Christ, based on the essentially Platonic idea that spiritual reality was a reality superior to that experienced in the material world through the senses. And since the alleluia before the Gospel was omitted on penitential days and seasons, it was replaced (beginning about the 9th century) by another new chanted text, called the tract. To the east, Hungarians and Poles begin to convert to Christianity, and Christianity reaches Iceland and Greenland to the west. The same is true for the Office. In later centuries, there was a pronounced tendency to compile individual volumes (or small sets of volumes) that were more comprehensive, containing in a single book, at least the minimum, if not most of the textual material required for that specific rite or by that specific presider. Scandinavia was largely Christianized by the early 12th century, and the threat of violent Viking raids waned. Leo established a papal presence north of the Alps in other church councils at which he promoted reform and denounced both simony and clerical marriage. While there were attempts to compile a standard book of Roman rituals in the 16th century, none were officially adopted. Gregorys reform activities have been overshadowed by his controversy with Henry IV over the investiture of the clergy. During the 11th century, lay investiture came under increasing criticism as an act of simony and a violation of the independence of the church. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. Sundays during these seasons were numbered, for example, the first Sunday of Advent or the third Sunday of Lent. The struggle between the kings of England and France led to the long-term devastation of the Hundred Years War (13371453). Countless other men and women traveled to Jerusalem in the early 1030s, probably to witness the return of Christ. Therefore, the dates of other religious observations in the Lent and Easter seasons are also variable: for example, Ash Wednesday, Ascension Thursday, and Pentecost Sunday. Eleven years later Pope Calixtus II (reigned 111924) accepted the Concordat of Worms (1122), according to which free election by ecclesiastics was to be followed by investiture (without staff and ring, which were granted by the church) and homage to the king. Two popes were candidates of rival aristocratic families, and the third, though widely respected for his piety, allegedly committed simony to receive his office. Cyrille Vogels original volume, Introduction aux sources de lhistoire du culte chrtien aux moyen ge (Spoleto, Italy: Centro Italiano di Studi Sullalto Medioevo, 1966) was revised some twenty years later and translated into English by liturgical historians William Storey and Niels Rasmussen; that title is Medieval Liturgy: An Introduction to the Sources (Washington, DC: Pastoral Press, 1986). The new forms of religious life that emerged, both orthodox and heterodox, were foreshadowed by Gregory VIIs devotion to St. Peter or were inspired by Gregorian reform efforts. Scriptural readings for the hours could be found in a marked Bible, or using a capitulary; other readings (required for the nine readings, divided into groups of three and arranged in liturgical units called nocturns, that formed part of the office of Matins) might be taken from a martyrology or a Legenda (containing longer texts of the lives of the saints) or from a sermon by a saint, found collected in a volume called a homiliary. 2. During the first part of the 20th century, liturgical scholars interested in the medieval period concentrated on the preparation of critical editions of various key liturgical books, available only in manuscript form. In general, trade expanded, leading to the development of a merchant class operating on a renewed cash economy. The strengthening of these centralized monarchies influenced the papacy as wellfor most of the 14th century, popes and the papal court and offices (the curia) resided in Avignon, and under French influence, rather than in Rome. Supporters of the traditional role of the emperor in ecclesiastical elections defended lay investiture by appealing to immemorial practice, which had been accepted and even enjoined by the papacy. But it was not until the beginning of the 11th century that the faith spread among the nomadic peoples of this and other central Asian regions. Although Gregory died a lonely exile, his principles of reform found reception all over Europe, and the new generation of bishops was Gregorian in sympathy and obedient in practice to papal commands in a way unknown to their predecessors. Gregory also believed that the pope is sanctified by the merit of St. Peter and that Rome alone defines the true faith. 274.304. These earliest pontificals, all dated after 800 ce, would also contain other material that would be later transferred to the rituale, or manual of other rites for the use of a priest; pontifical rituals would eventually be excluded from this presbyteral volume. As was the case with the sacramentaries and the ordines, this original Roman chant was also influenced by Frankish practice and expanded by additional chant material in later centuries. These would eventually be bound together in a single volume; the earliest of these collections is the Verona manuscript, (Veronense from the library of Verona, in which it was discovered), also called the Leonine sacramentary because it had earlier been thought to date from the papacy of Leo I (d. 461 ce). Madrasa-Mausoleum of Sultan Al Nasir Muhammad in Cairo has a Gothic doorway from Acre, reused as a trophy. Eventually the texts in the supplement were integrated into the main text, and other material was added. Local farmers would have their fields blessed during the spring, on days of fasting and prayer known as the Rogation days. Political and social structures underwent a sometimes turbulent development during this time. Like the Missale Romanum (1570), it was to replace breviary traditions in use for less than two hundred years. Schools established at monasteries and cathedrals formed the basis for the foundation and growth of medieval universities. The first phase of the Gregorian Reform movement resulted from chaos in Rome. By the late 12th century, theologian Peter Lombard defined several of the Churchs liturgical rites as primary sacraments that are both signs and causes of grace: Baptism, Eucharist, Confirmation, Penance, Marriage, Ordination, and Anointing of the Sick (Extreme Unction). By the 11th century the greater part of central Christendom had been divided into bishops dioceses and individual parishes. The date of Christmas was set as December 25 in the mid-4th century and was therefore celebrated on that fixed date no matter what the day of the week or the phase of the Moon, like the feast days of Mary and the saints. At the beginning, much of Europe north of the Alps was thinly settled; initially there were few hamlets and cities among the rural fields and wilderness. There were several points during the Mass that antiphonsphrases or lines usually taken from the psalms, sometimes followed by other psalm verseswould be sung in a particular style known as chant. These come at the beginning of Mass, before the reading of the Gospel, the Alleluia as the Gospel book is brought forward, at the offertory (as the bread and wine are brought to the altar), and during communion. Other chants were developed from the 9th to the 11th centuries: tropes, sung phrases or texts woven into the chanting of a main text, like an alleluia, were collected into a book called the Troper. This is especially true of the strong Gallican (and later, Germanic) influence on the shape and content of the Roman liturgy. Leos reign was not without setbacks, however. The most important of these was the Peace of God movement, a series of church councils clustered primarily in the years preceding the millennium of the birth of Jesus and the millennium of the Passion and later incorporated into the broader institutional fabric of medieval society. The architectural and geographical environment, the hierarchical and political influences, the considerations of class and gender, and the economic and social developments of each century must be understood and interwoven with theological, linguistic, and artistic interpretation. 1054 The East-West Even more directly influential was Gregorys centralization of the church. The turn of the 20th century saw a burst of European publication activity in the area of medieval liturgy. Benedict himself includes specific instructions in his Rule on differences in the summer and winter liturgical schedules. 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