I jokingly describe this to my students as the Menacing Eagle School of History, after the many books in this vein whose covers depict eagles attacking the globe. 23. 18 Its worth noting, though, that Bolton himself was shaped by the 1898 moment. 2; Rebecca Lemov on Micronesia as a social scientific laboratory in World as Laboratory: Experiments with Mice, Mazes, and Men (New York, 2005), ch. In the rest of the theater, it occurred on December 8th. Consider that, in 1940, African Americans made up less than nine percent of the population. 15. of 1783 following military victory, Purchased from France But things are changing quickly. Historians have rightly come to understand such sovereignty challenges as important components of U.S. history rather than as foreign episodes that lie outside the purview of the United States. 9. Albizu presents something of a puzzle. Consider Williamss Empire as a Way of Life , a 226-page survey of U.S. imperial ambitions that engages in no substantive discussion of any overseas territory. August R. Ohmans 1904 pocket map, highlighting the expansion of the United States, feautures a world map, top inset. References [ edit] ^ "Milestones: 1801-1829 - Office of the Historian". "Copyright by the National Publishing Company, Boston, Mass." Reasoning with a racist logicthe initial cases were decided by the same court that decided Plessy v. Ferguson it concluded that the bulk of the territories were unincorporated into the political body of the United States. We typically say that the end of the war left the United States in a global position of economic and political supremacy. for $5 million in assumed claims under Adams-Ons Treaty, Purchase from Mexico Besides the histories of military bases listed above, exemplary studies of small spaces include Ron Robins examination of embassies and cemeteries in Enclaves of America: The Rhetoric of American Political Architecture Abroad, 19001965 (Princeton, NJ, 1992); John Lindsay-Polands portrait of San Jose Island in Emperors in the Jungle: The Hidden History of the U.S. in Panama (Durham, NC, 2003), ch. 21. If California was one end of the spectrum, Oklahoma was the other. (To annex is to join a new territory to an existing country.) independent as Kiribati But what isnt important to the argument is the formal empire. * I am grateful to Alvita Akiboh, Michael Allen, Daniel Bessner, Brooke Blower, Michael Falcone, John Immerwahr, Julia Irwin, Aaron OConnell, Andrew Preston, Daniel Sargent, and the Huntington Library Long-Term Fellows Working Group for their thoughts on this essay and to Christopher Capozzola for introducing me to the term Greater United States.. . Copyright: H.C. Robertson. More about Copyright and other Restrictions. Sources and figures (in thousands): South Korea (17,917), the Philippines (18,228), and Japan (76,224): Maddison Project Database, January 2013 update, Groningen Growth and Development Centre, www/ggdc.net/maddison ; Hawaii (815), Alaska (138), Puerto Rico (2,071), and the U.S. Virgin Islands (27): Current Population Reports , Series P-25, No. Writers, too, registered the change, as they cast about for new ways to refer to the country. I am counting the time between when a territory was annexed to the United States to the time it was admitted to the Union as a state. Available also through the Library of Congress Web site as a raster image. Frank Ninkovich offers an overview of the historiography in The United States and Imperialism, in Robert D. Schulzinger, ed., A Companion to American Foreign Relations (Malden, MA, 2003), 79102. Some constitutional aspects of territorial expansion. Zone in Austria (2,650): John D. Hilldring, American Policy in Occupied Areas (Washington, DC: 1947), 24; U.S. The Hart-Bolton map, published in 1917, was one of the last such maps to appear. The United States continued to hold colonies after World War II, hence the Puerto Rican Uprising of 1950 and House shooting of 1954. 4 0 obj It was a moment when the United States briefly flirted with outright territorial conquest before turning toward other, harder-to-see forms of global power. 16 The term United States of America has ceased to be an accurate description of the countries over which the Stars and Stripes float, the author of one argued. Annexation of independent republic. 11 and 29; and William E. Unrau, The Rise and Fall of Indian Country, 18251855 (Lawrence, KS, 2007). 29 Its remarkable, in fact, how many key figures in U.S. history sojourned in the overseas territories. Includes Sandwich Islands inset, world map inset, statistical tables, notes, and ill. In popular memory, it remains the good war, a war focused mainly on the goal of stopping Hitlers crusade through Europe. That is because they dramatically expose the gap between the logo map conception of the United States and the larger conception for which I am arguing. Law Club (Chicago, Ill.) - Smith, Howard Leslie. Oregon Territory. 1857. We have been so long used to regard the United States as an extent of country reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, and bounded on the north by the British possessions and on the south by the Mexican Republic, remarked the Attorney General, that it requires almost a wrench to take us out of our old habits of thought and accustom us to the fact that our domain on the north reaches to within the Arctic Circle; that we have the Sandwich Islands [Hawaii]; that we have the vast Philippine Archipelago. 14, Cartographers, eager to showcase the new dimensions of the country, rushed to publish new maps. Puerto Rican scholars have written a great deal about Albizu, who is a towering figure in Puerto Rican culture. There is a K-8 school named after him in Harlem: P.S. For a very long time, in fact. Now lets look at Entrepreneurial Leadership Who was Gregorio Cortez and what happened to him. Surely, hundreds of thousands of Filipinos died in the war. The first sixteen chiefs of staff, until 1948, all served in the colonies. 4. James R. Blaker, United States Overseas Basing: An Anatomy of the Dilemma (New York, 1990), 33. 25. Like United Kingdom, it applies merely to the central and dominating body, the seat of empire; and Greater America comprises almost as wide a range of governments as Greater Britain itself. 17. We destroyed roads, public buildings, and bridges. Those examples are merely suggestive. silhouette was completed in 1853, with the Gadsden Purchase. A key enabling move made by Williams and the Wisconsin School that continued his ideas was to refuse to limit discussion of empire to a discussion of colonies. 286,541. Also available in digital form. endobj 36. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com. On March 1, 1784, just 47 days after the Treaty of Paris granting the United States independence was ratified, Virginia ceded its claims over the area north of the Ohio River to the federal government. (William B.) A helpful overview of the significance of the colonies for the mainland is Alfred W. McCoy, Francisco A. Scarano, and Courtney Johnson, On the Tropic of Cancer: Transitions and Transformations in the U.S. Imperial State, in McCoy and Scarano, Colonial Crucible , 333. William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (Cleveland, OH, 1959). But they are not the whole of it. Id like to propose a different unit of analysis, one that counts all of the land over which the United States claims sovereignty as part of the country, and as part of its history. 5 0 obj 7. following military victory; $15 million plus 3.25 million in assumed claims, Unincorporated territory claimed under Guano Act of 1856, Unincorporated territory annexed under Guano Act of 1856; I have emphasized the United States overseas colonies, places like Puerto Rico and the Philippines. I counted all non-review articles containing the words Philippine, Philippines, Filipino, or Filipinos in their titles. 4. Daniel Immerwahr, The Greater United States: Territory and Empire in U.S. History , Diplomatic History, Volume 40, Issue 3, June 2016, Pages 373391, https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhw009, March 1954 is a month diplomatic historians know well. In the 1840s and 1850s, US leaders saw Cuba's strategic importance Annexation by the United States Read . 39. The 18981899 annexations showed U.S. thinkers their country from a new perspective. When we factor the territories in, were left not with the logo mapthe familiar compact and static land mass. 30. Boston, Small, Maynard & company. 14. To the story of the United States attempt to encompass Indians within its territorial framework should be added the story of the United States grappling with self-constituted Indian polities, on which see Brian DeLay, Indian Polities, Empire, and the History of American Foreign Relations, Diplomatic History 39, no. The country's first and largest territorial acquisition was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 for $10 million; it nearly doubled the landmass of the original 13 states. endobj 10. The Oregon Treaty with Great Britain. They had even more people in the past. 3 (1933): 44874. Annexation, in international law, is the forcible acquisition of one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory. Relief shown by hachures and spot heights. Yet Williamss school regarded 1898 as symptomatic rather than substantive: the small and visible tip of a much larger imperial iceberg. But the second arc, concerning overseas territories, is regarded as less so. In its first twenty-five years it published only a single article on the Philippines, during which time it published three on Guatemala (one-eighth the size) and seven on France. and Germany, Leased from Panama The many islands claimed by the United States but not listed in the census (all uninhabited) are not included. See also Stacie L. Pettyjohn, U. S. Global Defense Posture, 17832001 (Santa Monica, CA, 2012). 31. 34. jurisdiction of Office of Insular Affairs of the Department of the They are maintained, not through informal influence, but through legal agreements, formal incursions onto the sovereignty of host nations. If that is anywhere close to correct, that makes World War II in the Philippines the most violent event ever to take place on U.S. soil, bloodier by far than the Civil War. 8. As a result of the United States' multiple acquisitionsincluding Hawaii and the Philippinesduring the late 1800s, the period is referred to by some as the nation's age of U.S. _____. But we speak less of another anticolonial revolt that broke out in another part of the world. Shattuc, W. B. Besides the above, see especially Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (Berkeley, CA, 1990); Katharine H. S. Moon, Sex among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S.Korea Relations (New York, 1997); McCaffrey, Military Power and Popular Protest ; Maria Hhn, GIs and Frauleins: The German-American Encounter in 1950s West Germany (Chapel Hill, NC, 2002); Ji-Yeon Yuh, Beyond the Shadow of Camptown: Korean Military Brides in America (New York, 2002); Petra Goedde, GIs and Germans: Culture, Gender, and Foreign Relations, 19451959 (New Haven, CT, 2003); Mark L. Gillem, America Town: Building the Outposts of Empire (Minneapolis, MN, 2007); Masumichi S. Inoue, Okinawa and the U.S. Military: Identity Making in the Age of Globalization (New York, 2007); Harvey Neptune, Caliban and the Yankees: Trinidad and the United States Occupation (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007); Steven High, Base Colonies in the Western Hemisphere, 19401967 (New York, 2009); Lipman, Guantnamo ; Lutz, ed., The Bases of Empire ; David Vine, Island of Shame: The Secret History of the U.S Military Base on Diego Garcia (Princeton, NJ, 2009); Maria Hhn and Seungsook Moon, eds., Over There: Living with the U.S. Military Empire from World War Two to the Present (Durham, NC, 2010); Amy Austin Holmes, Social Unrest and American Military Bases in Turkey and Germany since 1945 (Cambridge, 2014); Sasha Davis, The Empires Edge: Militarization, Resistance, and Transcending Hegemony in the Pacific (Athens, GA, 2015); and Vine, Base Nation . It also added to its colonial holdings in 1947 with the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: technically a trusteeship administered by the United States on behalf of the United Nations, but held under a unique arrangement that allowed the UN almost no effective oversight. Why has this figure, who seems so immediately fascinating, not part of mainstream U.S. historiography? Profile of the Erie Canal, notes, and illustration in lower margin. Nevertheless, it is worth pointing out that a full census of all the people who lived under U.S. jurisdiction at the wars endresidents of the states, colonies, and occupied zonesreveals the astonishing fact that the majority (51%) lived outside of the continental United States. With time, Indian Territory was whittled down to Oklahoma. If you count Puerto Rico as part of the United States (more about which below), it was the largest police massacre in U.S. history. The threewestern territories, overseas territories, and foreign basesfit together in overlapping but chronologically distinct arcs. 34 Manila, the sixth-largest city in the United States (substantially larger than Boston or Washington, D.C.), was decimated. Relief shown by hachures. But that fact can overshadow the territorial purgatory that future states occupied for long periods. In 2000, the Puerto Rican Day Parade in New York was dedicated to Albizu (and to the struggle of Vieques against the U.S. Navy). Geographical crumbs is what Neil Smith called them in his book American Empire . 24 Today, we can add another major form of territorial extension to the story: overseas military bases. Despite his extraordinary career, Albizu doesnt have much of a place in U.S. historiography. To occupy a country temporarily is obviously different from annexing it. It featured a clean division between home front and battlefield and left the United States largely unscathed, with the sole and notable exception of the attack on Hawaii at Pearl Harbor. 38. To speak only of formal acquisitions, . state.gov. In 1857, the United States began annexing guano islandsuninhabited islands possessing valuable fertilizer. Citations are generated automatically from bibliographic data as 31 Over the course of the war, Japan attacked every inhabited Pacific colony that the United States held, and it occupied the Philippines, Guam, Wake, and part of Alaska. First attempt to open the Mississippi LC Civil War maps (2nd ed. John O'Sullivan (1813-1895), famously proclaimed that it was "our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence." 1. But, overall, the overseas territories today contain over four million people. By 1791, when all of the Atlantic states except Georgia had given up their pretentions that their borders stretched to the western edge of the country, the states covered only slightly more than half (55%) of the United States. The final map in the series showed the United States full territorial extent. In the Philippines, the United States abandoned its initial strategy of engaging Japanese forces on the ground for one of bombing and shelling suspected Japanese targets from afar. 27. Still, empire continues to guide our inquiries. It was entitled Greater United States. 19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j World Atlas. Research at least 6 tools in each category and, Please Follow All The Requirements Carefully And Upload On Time 4 What we rarely acknowledge is how much territory the U.S. also held by the wars end. Takeover, the purchase of one company by another; Mergers and acquisitions, transactions in which the ownership of companies or their operating units are transferred or consolidated with other entities; Procurement, finding, agreeing terms and acquiring goods, services or works from an external source; Library acquisitions, department of a library responsible for . For guidance about compiling full citations consult Citing Primary Sources. Includes notes and statistics table including population and distances. Territories with no indigenous populations, such as Wake Island, are listed as unpopulated, although the United States often stationed military outposts on them. 3 Albizu founded Puerto Ricos Army of Liberation in the 1930s. In 1950, Albizu orchestrated a coordinated uprising throughout Puerto Rico, a rebellion so serious that the Puerto Rican National Guard used planes to suppress it, strafing the towns of Jajuya and Utuado from the sky. . Surely its meaningful that the present editors of this journal, Nick Cullather and Anne Foster, are both historians of the Philippines. As the 1898 generation saw, a full history of the Greater United States is not just the story of overseas territories, but also of western ones. Williams and the many historians working in his long shadow have always happily acknowledged the colonies that the United States took. The company operated by providing a network of support infrastructure for adventuring groups, which were referred to as franchises. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. This was a war, not over latitudes but points, in which particular spots on the mapthe Green Zone in Iraq, black-site prisons sprinkled throughout foreign countries, Guam, Guantnamo Bay, the all-important military base of Diego Garciatook on outsize significance. self-governing commonwealth of the United States, Annexed following Spanish-America War; in 1950 became HISTORY United States: world's fourth largest country in terms of area #1: Russia #2: Canada #3: China migration: the movement of people within a country or region . o :E>vYs~;+&`]J(g(Ql)u Y!+wZ41Y@5 V5Q Z J&j8jkuJ?uFbccuc(d01 Ey?G78%@E^5p;MlCjRM1 a#j@#(#$5|IW:;&,-~P0m. 28. following military victory; independent in 1946, Annexed following military victory over Spain, Annexed in settlement with Britain Overseas empire usually appears in textbooks as an episodea single chapter, set in 1898rather than as an enduring feature. On the eve of the Second World War, the United States had the worlds fifth-largest empire on the planet by population. You notice that Pearl Harbor was not just an isolated attack on one patch of U.S. soil but a blitzkrieg directed at U.S. and British colonial holdings in the Pacific. United States Acquisitions and Annexations, 1857-1904 United States positions (with date of acquiunion) 1047 Spheres of Influence Treaty of Paris of 1783 following American If you have any questions please let me know.! Summary, Has The Organization Managements Played Part In Increase In Information Risk In The Modern World 1 On the same day that the Japanese struck Hawaii, they also attacked the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, Midway Island, and Howland Island, plus the British territories of Malaya and Hong Kong and the independent kingdom of Thailand. Pdf. Only in Hawaii, Midway, and Howland did the vagaries of the international date line place the attack on December 7th. The recent monographic literature is large; but see especially Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and the Philippine-American Wars (New Haven, CT, 1998); Louis A. Prez, The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography (Chapel Hill, NC, 1998); Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. chemical weapon disposal site, Purchased from Russia for $25 million; currently an organized, unincorporated U.S. territory under jurisdiction of Office of Insular Affairs of the Dept. It was when the Viet Minh attacked the French air base at Dien Bien Phu, which ultimately pulled the United States into the Vietnam War. It is generally held to be an illegal act. Cover-title. The first arc in the history of the Greater United States, concerning western territories, is obviously central to any telling of U.S. history, and has been since at least Frederick Jackson Turners frontier thesis. Many of the most important books have been edited collections: Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, NC, 1993); Frances Negrn-Muntaner and Ramn Grosfoguel, eds., Puerto Rico Jam: Rethinking Colonialism and Nationalism (Minneapolis, MN, 1997); Julian Go and Anne L. Foster, eds., The American Colonial State in the Philippines: Global Perspectives (Durham, NC, 2003); Catherine Lutz, ed., The Bases of Empire: The Global Struggle against U.S. Military Posts (New York, 2009); Alfred W. McCoy and Francisco A. Scarano, eds., Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State (Madison, WI, 2009); and Alyosha Goldstein, ed., Formations of United States Colonialism (Durham, NC, 2014). stream 36. 23 In the past decade, Diplomatic History has dramatically increased its publishing on the Philippines, with an article every two or three years. Discussion Board 5 12 And for the U.S. nationals who inhabited those colonies, it was a traumatic affair. assumed claims, Purchased from Spain for $5 million in assumed claims $15 million plus 3.25 million in assumed claims, Unincorporated territory claimed under Guano Act of Opening to China, A State of Neutrality: State Development and Early American Neutrality, U.S. Art Museums and Exhibition Diplomacy, Cultural Intermediaries and the Sounds of Freedom, About the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations, Receive exclusive offers and updates from Oxford Academic, Copyright 2023 Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations. Mexican Cession. 1846. Examine the map of US acquisitions and annexations. Bicknell, Edward. A detailed account, based on interviews with two of the shooters, is Manuel Roig-Franzia, A Terrorist in the House, Washington Post , February 22, 2004. Earl S. Pomeroy, Pacific Outpost: American Strategy in Guam and Micronesia (Stanford,CA, 1951). Also available in digital form. <>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI] >>/MediaBox[ 0 0 720 540] /Contents 4 0 R/Group<>/Tabs/S/StructParents 0>> That narrative, I would argue, only makes sense if you dont count the colonies as parts of the United States. United States--Foreign relations, - To get a better sense of this, consider the historiographic fate of the Philippines, the largest U.S. colony by an order of magnitude, in our most prominent historical journals. Despite the obvious relevance of territorial issues to the most important events of the nineteenth centuryit was the question of slavery in the territories that sparked the Civil Warwe nevertheless find it easy to conceive of territories as embryonic states, and thus to touch only lightly on their subjugated status. Please see attached document for assignments needed. Fifteen years before his famous address to the American Historical Association, the Epic of Greater America, Bolton published a series of classroom maps and an atlas with Albert Bushnell Hart. The more states followed Virginias lead, the larger the non-state territory grew. The problem is not, I hasten to add, a lack of available information. The logo-map silhouette was completed in 1853, with the Gadsden Purchase. A helpful account of the Wisconsin School is Morgans Into New Territory . Jimmy M. Skaggs, The Great Guano Rush: Entrepreneurs and American Overseas Expansion (New York, 1994), 199. California filled with whites and transitioned from military rule to statehood in two years. The Territory of the United States, 1845-1886 A map from 1886 of the United States showing the territories ceded by Mexico and the acquisition of Alaska. For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. 6. This was not just a war to defend the sovereignty of countries in Europe and Asia. (Oxford, 1989). See also Christina Duffy Burnett, The Edges of Empire and the Limits of Sovereignty: American Guano Islands, American Quarterly 57 (2005): 779803 and Gregory T. Cushman, Guano and the Opening of the Pacific World: A Global Ecological History (Cambridge, 2013). The independent United Stated flirted with the idea of annexing Cuba from the time of Thomas Jefferson's' administration. The revolt touched eight cities. [Pdf] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/04014391/. Fish and Wildlife Service, Unincorporated territory annexed under Guano Act of United States Acquisitions and Annexations, 1857-1904. It would be easy to round those points down to zero, just as it has been easy to round the western territories up to states. 46. Zone in Germany (17,174): figures from October 1946 census reported in The Demography of War: Germany, Population Index 14 (1948): 299; Continental United States (132,481): Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC: 1975), part I, 8. On Hawaiian statehood in this regard, see Sarah Miller-Davenport, State of the New: Hawaii Statehood and Global Decolonization in American Culture, 19451978 (Ph.D. Paul Kramer, in his portrait of the United States as a nation-based empire, presents a significantly modified version of the Williams thesis that is skeptical of the clean formal/informal distinction: Power and Connection: Imperial Histories of the United States in the World, American Historical Review 116, no.
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