The midsagittal section below shows the difference between the relatively smooth upper surface and the bumpy, grooved lower surface. A. proliferation, reserved, maturation, calcification, B. maturation, proliferation, reserved, calcification, C. calcification, maturation, proliferation, reserved, D. calcification, reserved, proliferation, maturation. The cranial vault denotes the top, sides, front, and back of the cranium. Options may include a mastectomy, chemotherapy, radiation, or removal of skin lesions. Remodeling occurs as bone is resorbed and replaced by new bone. As the cartilage grows, capillaries penetrate it. During intramembranous ossification, compact and spongy bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal (undifferentiated) connective tissue. There are several types of craniosynostosis, depending on the sutures they affect: Craniosynostosis requires surgical treatment to avoid later complications. B. In this study, we investigated the role of Six1 in mandible development using a Six1 knockout mouse model (Six1 . Bones at the base of the skull and long bones form via endochondral ossification. D) distal epiphysis. Blood vessels invade the resulting spaces, not only enlarging the cavities but also carrying osteogenic cells with them, many of which will become osteoblasts. O Diaphysis The neurocranium is a group of eight bones that form a cover for the brain and brainstem. Those with the most severe forms of the disease sustain many more fractures than those with a mild form. D. They group together to form the primary ossification center. As osteoblasts transform into osteocytes, osteogenic cells in the surrounding connective tissue differentiate into new osteoblasts at the edges of the growing bone. In what ways do intramembranous and endochondral ossification differ? ", Biologydictionary.net Editors. This can occur in up to 85% of pterion fracture cases. The spaces between a typical baby's skull bones are filled with flexible material and called sutures. Cranial Bones. Toward that end, safe exercises, like swimming, in which the body is less likely to experience collisions or compressive forces, are recommended. This bone helps form the nasal and oral cavities, the roof of the mouth, and the lower . How does the cranium provide protection to the human brain? This continued growth is accompanied by remodeling inside the medullary cavity (osteoclasts were also brought with invading blood vessels) and overall lengthening of the structure (Figure 6.4.2d). Group of answer choices from cartilage models within osseous membranes from a tendon within fibrous membranes This problem has been solved! Mutations to a specific gene cause unusual development of the teeth and bones, including the cranial bones. The Cardiovascular System: Blood, Chapter 19. Craniosynostosis. In infancy, the eight cranial bones are not quite sewn together, which allows for brain growth. Suture lines connect the bones, where they develop together. It is a layer of hyaline cartilage where ossification occurs in immature bones. (n.d.). The two parietal (pah-ri '-e-tal) bones form the sides and roof of the cranium. Skull fractures are another type of condition associated with the cranium. A cranial CT scan of the head is a diagnostic tool used to create detailed pictures of the skull, brain, paranasal sinuses, and eye sockets. Tumors require a medical team to treat. At birth, the skull and clavicles are not fully ossified nor are the junctions between the skull bone (sutures) closed. The skull and jaws were key innovations in vertebrate evolution, vital for a predatory lifestyle. It also gives a surface for the facial muscles to attach to. Craniofacial Development and Growth. All bone formation is a replacement process. Frontoethmoidal suture: very short suture between the orbital projections of the frontal and ethmoid bones, Petrosquamous suture: refers to the join between the petrous and squamous parts of the temporal bone, close to the middle ear and at the skull base, Sphenoethmoidal suture: between the sphenoid and ethmoid bones, Sphenopetrosal suture: joins the greater wing of the sphenoid bone with the petrous part of the temporal bone, Sphenoid bone (1 depending on the source), Ethmoid bone (1 depending on the source), Maxillae (2 sometimes considered to be 1 fused bone), Mandible (1 sometimes considered to be 2 fused bones). Verywell Health's content is for informational and educational purposes only. As the baby's brain grows, the skull can become more misshapen. Osteoclasts resorb old bone that lines the medullary cavity, while osteoblasts, via intramembranous ossification, produce new bone tissue beneath the periosteum. Treatment focuses on helping the person retain as much independence as possible while minimizing fractures and maximizing mobility. The process begins when mesenchymal cells in the embryonic skeleton gather together and begin to differentiate into specialized cells (Figure \(\PageIndex{1.a}\)). The bony edges of the developing structure prevent nutrients from diffusing into the center of the hyaline cartilage. https://quizack.com/biology/anatomy-and-physiology/mcq/cranial-bones-develop, Note: This Question is unanswered, help us to find answer for this one. This source does not include the ethmoid and sphenoid in both categories, but is also correct. The entire skull is made up of 22 bones, eight of which are cranial bones. Well go over all the flat bones in your body, from your head to your pelvis, Your bones provide many essential functions for your body such as producing new blood cells, protecting your internal organs, allowing you to move, A bone scan is an imaging test used to help diagnose problems with your bones. These cells then differentiate directly into bone producing cells, which form the skull bones through the process of intramembranous ossification. Curvature of the spine makes breathing difficult because the lungs are compressed. Sutures connect cranial bones and facial bones of the skull. The final bone of the cranial vault is the occipital bone at the back of the head. Biologydictionary.net Editors. The process begins when mesenchymal cells in the embryonic skeleton gather together and begin to differentiate into specialized cells (Figure 6.4.1a). Emily is a health communication consultant, writer, and editor at EVR Creative, specializing in public health research and health promotion. This is called appositional growth. Treatment for Pagets disease depends on the type. Interstitial growth only occurs as long as hyaline is present, cannot occur after epiphyseal plate closes. For more details, see our Privacy Policy. Chondrocytes in the next layer, the zone of maturation and hypertrophy, are older and larger than those in the proliferative zone. Just above the occipital bone and close to the midline of the skull cap are the parietal foramina. Bones grow in diameter due to bone formation ________. The cranium is pretty robust because it has such a high-stakes job of protecting the brain. Frontal Bone: An unpaired flat bone that makes up the forehead and upper part of the eye sockets. The answer is A) mark as brainliest. A bone grows in length when osseous tissue is added to the diaphysis. Compare and contrast interstitial and appositional growth. Ribas GC. However, in adult life, bone undergoes constant remodeling, in which resorption of old or damaged bone takes place on the same surface where osteoblasts lay new bone to replace that which is resorbed. Frontal bone -It forms the anterior part, the forehead, and the roof of the orbits. In the embryo, the vault bones develop through ossification of the ectomeninx - the outer membranous layer surrounding the brain; while the cranial base develops through an additional cartilaginous stage, 2, 16 the significance of which will be discussed later (Individual bones spanning both regions fuse at a later stage). It could be coming from your latissimus dorsi. Evaluate your skill level in just 10 minutes with QUIZACK smart test system. When the chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate cease their proliferation and bone replaces the cartilage, longitudinal growth stops. The cranium houses and protects the brain. ________________ is often caused by accumulation of fluid or h+. Q. The frontal crest is an attachment point for a fold in the membranes covering the brain (falx cerebri). The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles (collarbones) are formed via intramembranous ossification. Craniosynostosis (kray-nee-o-sin-os-TOE-sis) is a disorder present at birth in which one or more of the fibrous joints between the bones of your baby's skull (cranial sutures) close prematurely (fuse), before your baby's brain is fully formed. Considering how a long bone develops, what are the similarities and differences between a primary and a secondary ossification center? The first mechanism produces the bones that form the top and sides of the brain case. This leads to an unusually shaped skull and can sometimes affect facial features. The more mature cells are situated closer to the diaphyseal end of the plate. B) periosteum. Anatomic and Pathologic Considerations. Archaeologists have discovered evidence of a rare type of skull surgery dating back to the Bronze Age that's similar to a procedure still being used today. Develop a good way to remember the cranial bone markings, types, definition, and names including the frontal bone, occipital bone, parieta It articulates with fifteen cranial and facial bones. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart, Chapter 20. Braces to support legs, ankles, knees, and wrists are used as needed. There are some abnormalities to craniofacial anatomy that are seen in infancy as the babys head grows and develops. Q. Of these, the scapula, sternum, ribs, and iliac bone all provide strong insertion points for tendons and muscles. Like the primary ossification center, secondary ossification centers are present during endochondral ossification, but they form later, and there are at least two of them, one in each epiphysis. (n.d.). Generally speaking, yes. Some of these are paired bones. The severity of the disease can range from mild to severe. You'll get a detailed solution from a subject matter expert that helps you learn core concepts. Bowing of the long bones and curvature of the spine are also common in people afflicted with OI. They die in the calcified matrix that surrounds them and form the medullary cavity. This is why damaged cartilage does not repair itself as readily as most tissues do. The raised edge of this groove is just visible to the left of the above image. The ethmoid bone, also sometimes attributed to the viscerocranium, separates the nasal cavity from the brain. Chondrocranium or cartilaginous neurocranium: so-called because this area of bone is formed from cartilage (endochondral ossification). Craniosynostosis and craniofacial disorders. 2. Under normal conditions, the region expected to have the lowest pco2 is the ___________________. Learn to use the wind to your advantage by trimming your sails to increase your speed as you try to survive treacherous . It is subdivided into the facial bones and the cranium, or cranial vault (Figure 7.3.1).The facial bones underlie the facial structures, form the nasal cavity, enclose the eyeballs, and support the teeth of the upper and lower jaws. Cranial Neuroimaging and Clinical Neuroanatomy: Atlas of MR Imaging and Computed Tomography, Fourth Edition. A bone grows in length when osseous tissue is added to the diaphysis. When bones do break, casts, splints, or wraps are used. Why are osteocytes spread out in bone tissue? Appointments & Locations. Some other conditions that can affect the cranial bones include: With all the structures in your head and neck, its sometimes hard to pinpoint when symptoms are coming from an issue with the cranial bones. The epiphyseal plate is composed of five zones of cells and activity (Figure 6.4.3). The rate of growth is controlled by hormones, which will be discussed later. The bones are connected by suture lines where they grow together. Those influences are discussed later in the chapter, but even without injury or exercise, about 5 to 10 percent of the skeleton is remodeled annually just by destroying old bone and renewing it with fresh bone. Eventually, this hyaline cartilage will be removed and replaced by bone to become the epiphyseal line. a. bones b. muscles c. bone and muscle d. cartilage and bone; 1. In this article, we explore the bones of the skull during development before discussing their important features in the context of . Skull The bones of the cranium are the part of the skull that encapsulates the brain. The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles (collarbones) are formed via intramembranous ossification. Cranial bones develop from: tendons O cartilage. StatPearls Publishing. During the Bronze Age some 3,500 years ago, the town of Megiddo, currently in northern Israel, was a thriving center of trade. 2023 Dotdash Media, Inc. All rights reserved, Verywell Health uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Soon after, the perichondrium, a membrane that covers the cartilage, appears Figure \(\PageIndex{2.b}\)). Certain cranial tumors and conditions tend to show up in specific areas of the skull baseat the front (near the eye sockets), the middle, or the back. Introduction. They must be flexible as a baby passes through the narrow birth canal; they must also expand as the brain grows in size. A) phrenic B) radial C) median D) ulnar The skull is the skeletal structure of the head that supports the face and protects the brain. Modeling primarily takes place during a bones growth. C) metaphysis. There are 22 bones in the skull. The human skull is made up of 22 bones. Cranial bone anatomy can be confusing when we consider the various terms used to describe different areas. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. All that remains of the epiphyseal plate is the ossifiedepiphyseal line (Figure 6.4.4). Intramembranous ossification is complete by the end of the adolescent growth spurt, while endochondral ossification lasts into young adulthood. In what ways do intramembranous and endochondral ossification differ? Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. As the matrix surrounds and isolates chondroblasts, they are called chondrocytes. Skull or cranium: all bones of the head, from the top of the head to the hyoid bone (tongue bone). Unlike most connective tissues, cartilage is avascular, meaning that it has no blood vessels supplying nutrients and removing metabolic wastes. There are several types of bones within your body, including: There are eight cranial bones, each with a unique shape: Your cranial bones are held together by unique joints called sutures, which are made of thick connective tissue. The cranium can be affected by structural abnormalities, tumors, or traumatic injury. The hollow space taken up by the brain is called the cranial cavity. The Cellular Level of Organization, Chapter 4. Instead, cartilage serves as a template to be completely replaced by new bone. The frontal bone extends back over the curved line of the forehead and ends approximately one-third of the way along the top of the skull. See Answer Question: Cranial bones develop ________. This condensation process begins by the end of the first month. The proliferative zone is the next layer toward the diaphysis and contains stacks of slightly larger chondrocytes. The epiphyseal plate is composed of four zones of cells and activity (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). MORE: Every Ubisoft Game Releasing in 2021, and Every One Delayed into 2022. Prenatal growth of cranial base: The bones of the skull are developed in the mesenchyme which is derived from mesoderm. They stay connected throughout adulthood. The first four in the following list are the most important: Cranial and facial bones slightly overlap according to textbook sources. In a press release today, Ubisoft has given a new . Treatment focuses on helping the person retain as much independence as possible while minimizing fractures and maximizing mobility. Your cranial nerves help you taste, smell, hear and feel sensations. In a long bone, for example, at about 6 to 8 weeks after conception, some of the mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts (cartilage cells) that form the hyaline cartilaginous skeletal precursor of the bones (Figure 6.4.2a). A fracture refers to any type of break in a bone. This allows the brain to grow and develop before the bones fuse together to make one piece. Cranial nerves send electrical signals between your brain, face, neck and torso. These chondrocytes do not participate in bone growth but secure the epiphyseal plate to the osseous tissue of the epiphysis. They are joined at the midline by the sagittal suture and to the frontal bone by the coronal suture. The erosion of old bone along the medullary cavity and the deposition of new bone beneath the periosteum not only increase the diameter of the diaphysis but also increase the diameter of the medullary cavity. As the matrix surrounds and isolates chondroblasts, they are called chondrocytes. Damage to the medial rectus muscles would probably affect ________. Theyre irregularly shaped, allowing them to tightly join all the uniquely shaped cranial bones. Q. Research is currently being conducted on using bisphosphonates to treat OI. cranial bones: [plural noun] those bones of the skull that enclose the brain compare cranial segment. The reserve zone is the region closest to the epiphyseal end of the plate and contains small chondrocytes within the matrix. Osteoid (unmineralized bone matrix) secreted around the capillaries results in a trabecular matrix, while osteoblasts on the surface of the spongy bone become the periosteum (Figure \(\PageIndex{1.c}\)). Cranial bones develop A) within fibrous membranes B) within osseous membranes C) from cartilage models The development of the skeleton can be traced back to three derivatives[1]: cranial neural crest cells, somites, and the lateral plate mesoderm. The space containing the brain is the cranial cavity. Viscerocranium: the bottom part of the skull that makes up the face and lower jaw. There are several types of skull fracture that can affect cranial bones, such as: In many cases, skull fractures arent as painful as they sound, and they often heal on their own without surgery. Healthline has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations. In a long bone, for example, at about 6 to 8 weeks after conception, some of the mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes (cartilage cells) that form the cartilaginous skeletal precursor of the bones (Figure \(\PageIndex{2.a}\)). On the diaphyseal side of the growth plate, cartilage calcifies and dies, then is replaced by bone (figure 6.43, zones of hypertrophy and maturation, calcification and ossification). The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and a good deal of the clavicles (collarbones) are formed via intramembranous ossification, while bones at the base of the skull and the long bones form via endochondral ossification. For example, craniosynostosis is a condition in which the sutures of a babys skull (where you feel the soft spots) close too early, causing issues with brain and skull growth. What do ligaments hold together in a joint? It is dividing into two parts: the Neurocranium, which forms a protective case around the brain, and the Viscerocranium, which surrounds the oral cavity, pharynx, and upper respiratory passages. As the matrix calcifies, nutrients can no longer reach the chondrocytes. At the side of the head, it articulates with the parietal bones, the sphenoid bone, and the ethmoid bone. The cranial vault (which encloses the brain) bones are formed by intramembranous ossification. O fibrous membranes O sutures. (2018). Biologydictionary.net Editors. A single primary ossification center is present, during endochondral ossification, deep in the periosteal collar. Cranial bone development The cranial bones of the skull join together over time. Cranial bones develop A from a tendon B from cartilage. Skull development can be divided into neurocranium and viscerocranium formation, a process starting between 23 and 26 days of gestation. Biology Dictionary. This page titled 6.4: Bone Formation and Development is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. "Cranial Bones." Appositional growth allows bones to grow in diameter. Emily is a health communication consultant, writer, and editor at EVR Creative, specializing in public health research and health promotion. Appositional growth can occur at the endosteum or peristeum where osteoclasts resorb old bone that lines the medullary cavity, while osteoblasts produce new bone tissue. Intramembranous ossification is complete by the end of the adolescent growth spurt, while endochondral ossification lasts into young adulthood. Once fused, they help keep the brain out of harm's way. Brain size influences the timing of. A linear skull fracture, the most common type of skull fracture where the bone is broken but the bone does not move, usually doesn't require more intervention than brief observation in the hospital. Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System, Chapter 12. The cranial bones are developed in the mesenchymal tissue surrounding the head end of the notochord. Development of cranial bones The cranium is formed of bones of two different types of developmental originthe cartilaginous, or substitution, bones, which replace cartilages preformed in the general shape of the bone; and membrane bones, which are laid down within layers of connective tissue. How does skull bone develop? The cranial bones develop by way of intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. The sutures are flexible, the bones can overlap during birthing, preventing the baby's head from pressing against the baby's brain and causing damage.What are t rachellelunaa rachellelunaa 04/09/2021 During intramembranous ossification, compact and spongy bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal (undifferentiated) connective tissue. Cranial bone development starts in the early embryo from the neural crest and mesoderm cells. However, in infancy, the cranial bones have gaps between them and are connected by connective tissue. Fourteen are facial bones and eight are cranial bones. The bones in your skull can be divided into the cranial bones, which form your cranium, and facial bones, which make up your face. The process in which matrix is resorbed on one surface of a bone and deposited on another is known as bone modeling. Our website services, content, and products are for informational purposes only. The severity of the disease can range from mild to severe. Biologydictionary.net, September 14, 2020. https://biologydictionary.net/cranial-bones/. Bone pain is an extreme tenderness or aching in one or more bones. A review of hedgehog signaling in cranial bone development Authors Angel Pan 1 , Le Chang , Alan Nguyen , Aaron W James Affiliation 1 Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Cranial floor grooves provide space for the cranial sinuses that drain blood and cerebrospinal fluid from the lower regions of the meninges (dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater), the cerebrum, and the cerebellum. "Cranial Bones. They articulate with the frontal, sphenoid, temporal, and occipital bones, as well as with each other at the top of the head (see the final image in the five views below). Research is currently being conducted on using bisphosphonates to treat OI. You can opt-out at any time. The human skull serves the vital function of protecting the brain from the outside world, as well as supplying a rigid base for muscles and soft tissue structures to attach to.. The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue, Chapter 13. The cranial bones develop by way of intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. (figure 6.43, reserve and proliferative zones). The Peripheral Nervous System, Chapter 18. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, List the steps of intramembranous ossification, Explain the role of cartilage in bone formation, List the steps of endochondral ossification, Explain the growth activity at the epiphyseal plate, Compare and contrast the processes ofintramembranous and endochondral bone formation, Compare and contrast theinterstitial and appositional growth. (Updated April 2020). The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, Chapter 21. result of the cranial bones fusing too early, This source does not include the ethmoid and sphenoid in both categories, one of the meningeal arteries lies just under the pterion, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519545/. Cranial bones develop ________. The bones of the skull are held rigidly in place by fibrous sutures. During fetal development, a framework is laid down that determines where bones will form. Skull base tumor conditions are classified by the type of tumor and its location in the skull base. The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles (collarbones) are formed via intramembranous ossification. Bones continue to grow in length until early adulthood. He is an assistant professor at the University of California at Irvine Medical Center, where he also practices. The two main forms of ossification occur in different bones, intramembranous (eg skull) and endochondral (eg vertebra) ossification. As for hematomas caused by fractures, a severe hematoma may require prolonged observation in the hospital, while a mild one may require only rest and ice at home. These CNC-derived cartilages and bones are . Applied Cranial-Cerebral Anatomy: Brain Architecture and Anatomically Oriented Microneurosurgery. It articulates with the mandible by way of a synovial joint. 1.2 Structural Organization of the Human Body, 2.1 Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, 2.4 Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 2.5 Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles, 4.3 Connective Tissue Supports and Protects, 5.3 Functions of the Integumentary System, 5.4 Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, 6.6 Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, 6.7 Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, 7.6 Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, 8.5 Development of the Appendicular Skeleton, 10.3 Muscle Fiber Excitation, Contraction, and Relaxation, 10.4 Nervous System Control of Muscle Tension, 10.8 Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, 11.1 Describe the roles of agonists, antagonists and synergists, 11.2 Explain the organization of muscle fascicles and their role in generating force, 11.3 Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles, 11.4 Axial Muscles of the Head Neck and Back, 11.5 Axial muscles of the abdominal wall and thorax, 11.6 Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, 11.7 Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, 12.1 Structure and Function of the Nervous System, 13.4 Relationship of the PNS to the Spinal Cord of the CNS, 13.6 Testing the Spinal Nerves (Sensory and Motor Exams), 14.2 Blood Flow the meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid Production and Circulation, 16.1 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, 16.4 Drugs that Affect the Autonomic System, 17.3 The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus, 17.10 Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, 17.11 Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, 19.2 Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity, 20.1 Structure and Function of Blood Vessels, 20.2 Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, 20.4 Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, 20.6 Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, 21.1 Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, 21.2 Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, 21.3 The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, 21.4 The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, 21.5 The Immune Response against Pathogens, 21.6 Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, 21.7 Transplantation and Cancer Immunology, 22.1 Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, 22.6 Modifications in Respiratory Functions, 22.7 Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, 23.2 Digestive System Processes and Regulation, 23.5 Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, 23.7 Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, 25.1 Internal and External Anatomy of the Kidney, 25.2 Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidney: Anatomy of the Nephron, 25.3 Physiology of Urine Formation: Overview, 25.4 Physiology of Urine Formation: Glomerular Filtration, 25.5 Physiology of Urine Formation: Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion, 25.6 Physiology of Urine Formation: Medullary Concentration Gradient, 25.7 Physiology of Urine Formation: Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, 27.3 Physiology of the Female Sexual System, 27.4 Physiology of the Male Sexual System, 28.4 Maternal Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, 28.5 Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.
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